Thesisku "CHAPTER LITERARY REVIEW "

 

CHAPTER II

LITERARY REVIEW

 

The chapter elaborates some relevant theories as the basic points of the study, especially dealing with the nature of English teaching for Vocational school, cases portraying some problems in the teaching of English, and the concept and the implementation of SBC including the evaluation system in SBC.

 

2.1   The Nature   of English Teaching for Vocational School       

It is evident that vocational schools in Indonesia now are given much priority. Nowadays a vocational education is paid a serious attention from the government (Sinar Harapan,12/2/2010).  Vocational schools are assumed to be schools that teach people specific skills they need to obtain a job. Regarding this, Bishop points out that there is a strong evidence that the generic technical skills and occupationally specific skills provided in vocational education increase worker productivity, skill transfer, job access, and job stability when vocational graduates find training-related jobs (Bishop, 1995 cited in Wonacot, 2000). As Wang (2010:114) points out that  the objective of vocational education  is to improve the attributes of workers and  to promote the construction of socialist modernization.

Similarly, Vocational schools are an alternative way to reduce unemployment (Khalik, 2008). Khalik further reported that Indonesia currently is a high unemployment economy. About 10 percent of the 110 million labor force are unemployed. Annual economic growth of 6 percent is too low to absorb the annual increase in the labor force, adding 300,000 to 500,000 to the total unemployed each year. Therefore, the school should design a curriculum which meets the need of workforce.

In addition, Lynch (1996:5-16) points out that the school-based learning component of the youth apprenticeship program should be designed to integrate academic disciplines, academic and vocational subjects, as well as work-based learning components. As youth apprenticeship students experience these forms of integration, they should better understand how their learning has application and relevance to the workplace (Lynch, 1996:5-16). Moreover, a study by Smith (1997) elaborates that as with occupational/ technical skills, the vocational educators perceived a need for a higher prior mastery skill level for employability skills as well.

In Indonesia, English is one of the basic courses in vocational school. English is considered to be the first foreign language to be taught for the students in the primary, secondary, and higher education. In the Government Rule no.22/2006 (BSNP:2006)  on the standard content, English is included into science and technology subject.  This group subject at Vocational education is intended to apply science and technology, to maintain competencies, skills and working autonomy. English is supposed to be taught in 4 teaching periods (4 x 45 minutes)   in each week out of 36 total hours.

Regarding the process of learning, the Government Rule no.41/2007 elaborates some points relating to the Process Standard. It is stated that the aspect of English assessment involves knowledge, practice (skills) and attitude. Therefore, the assessment tends to focus on the nature of  the use of English language, emphasizing on how to  use the language appropriately. In other words, it is a performance-based competency assessment.

In addition, the assessment based on SBC focuses on the languange function as a means of communication. The integrated skills involved, included in four language skills namely, listening, speaking, writing, and reading. Therefore, the assessment is authentic and  pragmatic. As Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982, cited in Hwang, 2005) maintain that a natural communication task is one where the focus of the student is on communicating an idea or opinion to someone rather than on the language forms themselves. Therefore, evaluation system on SBC should meet the criteria that it should be based on communication.

     Moreover, as it is stated in BSNP (2006) that the objectives of education in vocational school is to enhance intelligence, knowledge, personality, good morale, and skills to  live independently and or to continue further education according to their vocational skills. Moreover, the government regulates some basic competence standards and graduation competence standards (Government Rule no.23/2006) to be reached for the students at vocational education. Dealing with Competence standards of English, teaching of English is mainly aimed at helping the students to communicate with English at novice level (the first grade), elementary level (the second grade) and at intermediate level (the third grade), see ‘Graduate Standard’ on Appendix 12 for detail. Those competencies are then defined into some basic standards in which it is the teacher’s role to develop these basic standards to be implemented in the teaching learning process according to the need of the students and also the existing condition. Here, the teachers should be more aware of learners characteristics and differences as pointed out by Harmer (2001:37-44). This is in line with Brown (2001) that a good character is a part of a good language teacher characteristics, and it is the main factor to influence a successful learning. Brown (2001:432-434) further elaborates some points of the teachers’ aspect to take into account in observing other teachers, such as preparation, presentation, execution/methods, personal characteristics, and teacher/students interaction. The detail information can be seen in the appendix 2. Moreover, Marsigit (2008:11) suggests that the following factors should be present in vocational education through English, such as students should be given enough opportunities to develop content of teaching as well as English; it needs for the teacher to develop media and teaching aids that support both the content of teaching and English.

 

2.2 Cases Portraying Some Problems in the Teaching of English at Vocational School

 A study stated in China Papers in China (2011) reported that the New Syllabus for Vocational school states explicitly that the objectives of English course are to help students learn basic knowledge of English further on the basis of compulsory education, to develop their four language skills, to form English application ability in occupational situations, to arouse students’ interest in English and build confidence in learning. However, it is further stated that many students in China are weak in using English and have no interest in learning English. The traditional language teaching cannot solve the problems.  A conclusion can be drawn from the study that task-based language teaching contributes to the improvement of English application ability of students in vocational school. Students show more interest in English than before, in the sense that students learn language and use it while doing things. Language learning and language use are properly integrated. This is in accordance with the teaching mode of “learning by doing, teaching by doing” advocated in vocational school. Regarding this, Harmer (2001:53) points out that increasing and directing student motivation is one of the teacher’s responsibilities.

Dealing with the teacher’s problem, a study conducted by Adams (1999) indicated that Vocational teachers have the least amount of preparation in their teaching roles suffered the greatest amount of job-related stress. Similarly, Gordon (1999) reported in his study on vocational teachers’ perception of the use of assessment methods. It revealed that Secondary vocational education teachers neither agreed nor disagreed that they were constrained in their assessment activities. Secondary vocational education teachers may therefore have less motivation to use the data if there is lack of time to address problems related to assessment quality.

 

2.3  The Nature  of SBC

2.3.1        What is SBC (2006 Curriculum)?

Marsh and Heng (1999:3) defines that a literal definition of ‘school based’ might imply that all educational decisions are made at the school level. Regarding  this, as suggested by Wang and Cheng (2005:26) that teachers are important stakeholders in their institutions and remind us that the significant role teachers should play in curriculum reform must not be overlooked if successful implementation and sustainability are to be achieved.

Similarly, the definition of SBC has been taken up from the issue of the devolution of responsibility from centralization to decentralization (Brady,1983, Bolstad, 2004). In line with these theorists, Lewy (1991:9) maintains that each school is based in a small community. And often, each community can have slightly different needs from other, even neighbouring communities. Lewy (1991:10) further elaborates that schools should allocate resources such as equipment, manpower, space and time for carrying out SBCD (School Based Curriculum Development) work. The diversification of curricula used in schools may jeopardize the content validity or the curriculum-fairness of nationally produced examinations.

Therefore, the school based curriculum has certain features (Bolstad, 2004:7) such as: the teachers are responsible for developing the curricula besides the implementation of the curricula. It means that the teachers should be involved in decision making, relating to the curriculum development and implementation. The teacher should design and implement their own curriculum  in the form of syllabus and lesson plan.

Regarding the implementation in Indonesia, The 2006 curriculum is a transformation of the previous curriculum- Competence Based Curriculum. SBC was implemented based on Law no. 20 /2003 on the national education system which then was clearly defined into Government Rule no. 19/2005 dealing with national education standards. Moreover, schools have been given a full authority in designing their educational plans which are based on the national standards, starting from the objective, vision and mission, the structure and content of curriculum, learning task, academic calendar and syllabus.

Looking at the journey of Curriculum in Indonesia, there had been several curricula applied in Indonesia before the existence of SBC, such as 1947 curriculum, Rentjana Pelajaran Terurai 1952, Rentjana Pendidikan 1964, 1968  curriculum, 1975 Curriculum, 1984 Curriculum, 1994 Curriculum, 2004 Curriculum (KBK). Each of the curricula has each strength and weaknesses. The change of the curriculum was basically to improve the existing curriculum. In reference to the improvement, SBC was designed to be one of the educational innovations to enhance the quality of education.

 

2.3.2   The   Principles of SBC

The  principles of SBC  (BSNP, 2006, Brady,1983)  can be described as follows: Firstly, it is focused on students’ potential, development, need and the existing environment. It means that the students’ characteristics such their background knowledge, their need and interest and the characteristics of the community around the school should be taken into account in the development of SBC.

 Secondly, integration and variation are included into the main concern. It implies that the teachers should be involved in decision making, relating to the curriculum development and implementation. The teacher should also design and implement their own curriculum which is based on consideration of some variables of the school components. Therefore, there should be a variation of curriculum in one school to another. Variation also refers to the techniques of teaching, the materials used and the evaluation in the English teaching which consider the integration of four language skills.  

SBC is suggested to be also responsive  to the development of  science, technology and arts and relevant to life skills, as it is intended as  a long life education. It means that SBC should fill the demand of changing era.

 Finally, it should keep the balance of national and local interests particularly the demand of workforce. It means that SBC is adaptive in the sense that the teachers can adapt the existing curricula to meet the local needs. Also, SBC is centrally supported and facilitated.  It is a responsibility sharing  between the centre, the region and the  school dealing with the funding, the teachers’ qualification, and  professional support system.  The central support is reflected in the national standard such as content standard (SI) and graduate  standard (SKL).

This is in line with Kunandar (2009) who further elaborates some changes in curriculum paradigm related to SBC characteristics.

 Table 2.1 The Change of Paradigm of the Previous Curriculum and SBC (Kunandar, 2009: 139)

Aspect	Previous Curriculum	SBC
Student	Passive	Active-Creative-productive
Curriculum	Subject-based	Competency  Based
Teacher	Instructor	Facilitator
Facility	Weak	Adequate
Learning	Passive learning	Active learning
Management	Centralistic	Decentralistic
Supervision	Billing Model	Guidance and Empowering Model
Environment and society	Tend to be passive	Conducive

 

      Corresponding to the SBC implementation, Zainurrahman (2009) in his study maintains that SBC which is being applied in Indonesia is now perceived as a curriculum that gives place to the variations of the school. The curriculum is built by the school based on consideration of some internal and external significance variables related to the school itself. However, as autonomous curriculum, it also demands teacher and school to be skilled and trained. This demand then causes different perception of the teachers as the curriculum user on the SBC.

 

 

2.4    English Evaluation System based on SBC

2.4.1        The Definition of Evaluation

Evaluation is a whole range of activities to find, analyze, and interpret the process and  learning outcome data which is  conducted systematically and continually in order to get meaningful information in making decision (BSNP,2006; Gronlund, 1985).

Evaluation sometimes is interchangeable with the term ‘assessment, measurement, or test. But in this study, it refers to what Gronlund’s stakes (1985) in differentiating the term. In test, it refers to an instrument or systematic procedure  for measuring  a sample of behavior. It answers the question “ how well does the individual  perform”. Meanwhile the measurement deals  with  the process of obtaining  a numerical  description  of the  degree  to which an individual possesses  a particular characteristics- answering the question  “ how much?”.Language assessment is defined as the range of procedures used to investigate aspects of individual language learning and ability, including the measurement of proficiency, diagnosis of needs, determination of achievement in relation   to   syllabus   objectives   and   analysis   of   ability to  perform specific tasks ( Lynch,2005:1). In evaluation, it relates to systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to determine the extent to which pupils are achieving instructional objectives.

Therefore, evaluation is much more comprehensive than the  three terms have been mentioned, but in this paper, evaluation and assessment terms are often interchangeable.

 

 

2.4.2         The Role of Evaluation  in Teaching

It is admitted that  the main purpose of  classroom instruction  is to help  pupils achieve a set of intended learning outcome. These outcomes  would typically include all desired pupil changes in the intellectual, emotional, and physical spheres. The pupils’ changes in learning progress is periodically evaluated by tests and other evaluation devices (Gronlund, 1985:6).  Similarly, Rudiana (2006: 123) points out that evaluation is very essential for teachers to know their students exactly and to enhance learning outcome.

Moreover, besides the teachers can get the data of the students’ achivement through evaluation, they also can measure the effectiveness of the teaching techniques being used, and it will be useful  for the teachers in choosing the  next move for the betterment in the future.  In addition, the evaluation result can also motivate the students to have a better achievement (BSNP:2006).

In addition, Chung (2005) points out though traditional, assessment is a way to find out about students’ readiness in learning a language. Assessment helps to identify students’ strengths and weaknesses in a particular area.

 

2.4.3         Evaluation System Based on SBC

2.4.3.1  The Characteristics of Evaluation System on SBC

      BSNP (2006) maintains some characteristics of Evaluation system based on SBC as follows:

Firstly, the evaluation system in SBC is competence based evaluation, in which the basic point to measure is the students’ competence. It is in line with Richards and Rodgers (2001) have maintained that the Competence consists of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors required for effective performance of a real-world task or activity (Richards and Rodgers, 2001:143).

             Secondly, the evaluation in SBC is Criterion Referenced Based, meaning that the students’ achievement is compared with the existing criteria or required standard that has been defined before. Similarly, the purpose of this evaluation (Hughes, 2003:21) is to classify people according to whether or not they are able to perform some tasks or set of tasks satisfactorily. The tasks are set and  the performances are evaluated. Those who perform the tasks satisfactorily ‘pass’; those who don’t, ‘fail’.

           Thirdly, the evaluation is an ongoing and thorough process. The evaluation should cover all skills and materials in the subject matters and it should be a continuation  for each grade and each levels of education.

          Finally, the evaluation should be in accordance with the learning process and the learning outcomes in terms of the mastery of required competences.

    Types of the evaluation which can be found in the SBC implementation can be categorized in the following manners (Grondlund, 1985; Heaton, 2003; Fulcher and Davidson, 2007 among others) that is determining pupil performance at the beginning of instruction (placement evaluation), monitoring  learning progress  during instruction (formative evaluation), diagnosing  learning difficulties  during instruction ( diagnostic evaluation), evaluating  achievement  at the end of instruction (summative evaluation).

    In terms of the techniques and the instrument, BSNP (2008) classifies some points as indicated in  Table 2.2 below.

Table 2.2  The techniques and the instruments of Evaluation (BSNP,2008:18)

 

Techniques of evaluation	The Instrument Form
• Written test	•choice  test :multiple choice item, true-false, matching • Essay : short essay and composition
• oral test	• question lists
• practice test (performance)	• identification         *simulation and  performance test
• individual and group assignments	• homework              *Project
• portfolio	• the assessment sheet of portfolio
• self assessment	• questionnaire/self assessment sheet
• peer assessment	• peer assessment sheet

2.4.3.2 The Stages in Evaluation  Sytem based on SBC

The stages of evaluation in SBC  can be described as follows: in the first stage, the teachers need to determining the value of MMC (Minimum Mastery Criteria). The MMC can be used as one of the prerequisites for learners to pass the learning subjects. It is determined at the beginning of a new academic year by the teachers. In relation to the assessment, MMC is very important to measure the degree of students’ mastery on the competency standards being taught, to help the students be well prepared to follow the evaluation system. The teachers decide three criteria in determining MMC such as complexity, supporting power and intake (BSNP:2006). The flow of  MMC can be seen on Figure below.

  Figure 2.1 The Flow of Activities in Designing MMC

MMC Indicators

MMC Basic Competence  CCCompeCompeten

 

 

MMC Subject

MMC Competence Standard

                                                                                        

 

 

      In the second stage, the teachers plan the evaluation.Evaluation is a general  term for any methods used for assessing the individual perfomance or group work to represent the learners’ achievement (translated from BSNP:2006). The evaluation should follow some principles including valid, objective, fair, integrated, sistematic, accountable, etc. The teachers can apply some techniques in conducting the evaluation such as tests, observation, inventory, journal, self assessment and peer assessment. And the last stage that is   carrying out  evaluation. In the evaluation practice, it should take into account  not only the cognitive aspects but also the affective and the psychomotor. The assessment which is intended to show the real ability in practice deals with psychomotor assessment, while theoretical ability is more focused on cognitive aspect, in which these two assessments should include the affective assessment.

 

2.4.4        Evaluation  of English Language  Skills

Dealing with four major skills broadly defined as listening, reading, speaking and listening, some points should be taken into account as described below:

2.4.4.1. Testing Speaking

In relation to testing speaking, it should be noted that the objective of teaching spoken language is the development of the ability to interact succesfully in that language, and that this involves comprehension as well as production (Hughes, 2003:113). Testing the ability to speak is the most important aspect of language testing but it is a difficult skill to test.  Some language components must be considered here, such as phonology, syntax etc. It is possible for people to produce practically all the correct sounds but still unable to communicate their ideas appropriately and effectively  (Heaton:1995). Some appropriate scales for scoring are accuracy, appropriateness, range, flexibility, and size (Hughes, 2003:127).

In addition, Ellis (1983) cites evidence from second language classroom. He suggests that learners can use an ‘expansion strategy’ to extend their messages vertically (that is, discoursally) rather than  horizontally (that is, structurally).

Moreover, Nunan (1998:51) suggests that learning to speak in a second or foreign language will be facilitated when learners are actively engaged in attempting to communicate. He summarized some speaking practice that could stimulate oral interaction in the classroom such as :

a.       Learners listens to and reads two line  dialogue and practices with a partner.

b.       Listen and repeat.

c.        Listen to  a model dialogue and repeat, interpolating  own name.

d.       Read question cue and make up question.

e.        Read a model dialogue and have similar conversation using cues provided.

f.        Study substitution table and make up sentences.

g.        Look at the picture and study model sentences, and many others.

 

Similarly, in a functional analysis of speaking Bygate (1987, cited in Nunan, 1998:40) suggests that oral interaction can be characterized in term of routines, information and interaction routines. The previous one contains frequently recurring types of information structures, being either be expository (e.g. narration, description, instruction, comparison) or evaluative (e.g. explanation, justification, prediction, decision). The latter, interaction routines  can be either service (e.g. job interview) or social (e.g. dinner party). This distinction of the two types of routines mirrors the distinction between  the transactional and interactional (or interpersonal)  functions  of language.  

In terms of types of speaking tests, the teachers can use various techniques, for instance, reading aloud, conversation exchanges, using pictures for assessing oral production, the oral interview. Some other techniques can be also carried out such as the short talk, group discussion, role playing.

 

2.4.4.2  Testing  Reading

The following are the skills involved in reading skills (see Heaton, 1995; Brown, 2001; Hughes, 2003; Harmer, 2007) that is recognising words and word groups; deducing the meaning of words; understanding explicit and implicit information; understanding relations between parts of the text; perceiving temporal and spatial relationship; understanding the conceptual meaning; anticipating and predicting what will come next in the text; identifying the main idea and other salient features in a text; generalizing and drawing conclusion; reading critically. Furthermore, Hughes (2003:138-141) elaborates some critical points to consider in testing reading : operations, text: text types. text forms, graphic features, topics, style, length, readability, range of vocabulary, speed, and  level of performance.    

Similarly, Nunan (1998:77-80) categorized the purposes of reading which determine the types of activities in the classroom, as follows:

a.       Reading for understanding, through selecting the right answers to the questions which requires the students to make inferences and deal with all the information that has been presented in the passage.

b.       Reading for fluency, involving the speed in reading by answering the question in a time limit.

c.        Vocabulary exercise

d.       Extensive reading, involving reading a lengthy article from one of the class texts.

 

 

 

2.4.4.3  Testing Listening

In Listening comprehension tests, Hughes (2003) elaborates that an awareness of the ways in which the spoken language differs from the written language is of crucial importance in the testing of the listening skills. For instance, the spoken language is much more complex than the written language in certain ways, as a result of the large element of ‘redundancy’ (means of gestures, eye movements, and slight changes in breathing) that it contains.

      Similarly, Brindley and Slatyer (2002, cited in Hui, 2006) reported on an exploratory study that examined the effects of task characteristics and task conditions on learner’s performance in competency-based listening assessment tasks. Key variables investigated included the nature of the input and the response mode, namely speech rate, text type, number of hearings, input source (live vs. audio-recorded) and item format. In particular, it has found that the lexical overlap between words in the text and words in an item’s options affect listening item difficulty.

Since listening is a receptive skill, the testing of listening parallels in most ways the testing of reading. (Hughes, 2003:160). According to Nunan (1998:38), in comprehending aural language, listeners do a great deal of constructive  and interpretive work in which they integrate what they hear with what they know  about the world. He further elaborates that it should be looked at some of the different ways of categorizing listening texts and tasks. In functional terms, interactive listening  has the interpersonal  function of establishing and maintaining social relationships, while for listening which takes place in the course of  transactional encounters, the main purpose is  to obtain goods and service.

In addition, some possible techniques can be applied to give listening test, such as: multiple choices, information transfer, note taking, partial dictation, transcription, and moderating the items, and presenting the text. Above all, there would be no rigid distinction drawn between the four different skills Similarly, Gebhard (2000: 147-154) presents some listening activities that EFL/ESL students can use such as identifying linguistics features, a stress and rhythm listening activity, a minimal pair, responding request and command, problem solving activity grid, so on.

 

 

 

 

2.4.4.4  Testing Writing

Dealing with testing the writing skills, Hughes (2003:83) points out that the best way to test people’s writing ability is to get them to write. He further elaborates some  testing problems for writing,:

1.       Writing tasks have to be properly representative of the population of tasks that students should be able to perform.

2.       The tasks should elicit valid samples of writing (i.e. which truly represent the students’ ability.

3.       It is essential that the samples of writing can and will be scored validly and reliably.

 

     Moreover, Nunan (1998:86-87) also maintains the need to integrate both process and product in the writing classroom, and elaborates that writing is a minimally a three-stage process of pre-writing, writing and revision. Purposes and audiences are also seen important. In addition, Gebhard (2000:223-235) maintains that teachers can teach beginners to write starting from learning basic conventions of writing. This includes being able to identify and write down letters, words, and simple sentences, as well as  learning spelling and punctuation conventions. Then, the students can be motivated to focus more easily on communicating their ideas through writing. To accomplish this, teachers should have the students work through a process of prewriting, drafting, revising and editing.

 

2.4.4.5. Testing Grammar  and Vocabulary

          Grammar and vocabulary are essential in language skills. In testing these components, many techniques can be used. As Hughes (2003:174-180) elaborates that grammar and vocabulary contribute to communicative skills. He further points out that:

Whatever the techniques are chosen for testing grammar, it is important for the text of the item to be written in grammatically correct and natural language. Four techniques are presented for testing grammar: gap filling, paraphrase, completion, and multiple choice. If vocabulary is being consciously taught, then presumably all the items thereby presented to the students should be included in the specifications.

The testing of vocabulary productively is so difficult that it is practically never attempted in proficiency test. Information on receptive ability is regarded as sufficient.

 

Similarly, Nattinger (1988 cited in Nunan,1998 :134-136) presents a number of classroom techniques for vocabulary development. He separates these   into techniques  for  comprehension (understanding and storing words), and production (retrieving and using these words). The techniques for comprehension include utilizing context clues, word morphology, key words, TPR, etc.

Moreover, Lynch (2003:119-122) presents a broad description of the assessment procedures for language assessment and program evaluation, as the following: Portfolios, work samples, performance tasks, projects, and simulations. Portfolio assessment is viewed as crucial in sharing control and collaboration in its collection, selection and reflection aspects. However, a study  in Taiwan by  Chen (2006) found out that  with an interesting contribution to our knowledge on portfolio use, concluding that portfolios are a useful and successful pedagogical tool but might not be appropriate for assessment.

To sum up, as Herrick (1996) in a study of assessment of student achievement and learning, elaborated a unitary system in which a key to a unitary system is an assessment system that measures not only knowledge and facts, but also the application of knowledge as well as the impact of experiences from work and life. This assessment is in accordance with the nature of evaluation based on SBC in which the assessment should include cognitive dealing with the students’ knowledge, affective  regarding to the attitude or behavior and psychomotor relating to the skill.

 

2.5            Synthesis

 

In this chapter, it has treated some basic principles applied in this study especially dealing with the nature of English teaching for Vocational school, and  the concept and the implementation of SBC includes the evaluation system.

The chapter has also shown the role of English in the vocational education and the problems dealing with English which were supported by related previous studies. The evaluation system which possesses certain characteristics prior to the existing curriculum has been included as the main point of measurement for the  data analysis  in the next section. The evaluation focuses on the languange function as a means of communication, maintaining some interactive tasks included in four language skills namely, listening, speaking, writing, and reading. Dealing with testing four language skills and language components, some techniques can be used and some aspects should take into account in the evaluation. The operation of principles and ideas at the level of classroom action have also been described along with some procedures in language assessment.

Moreover, the comparison and the contrast of the theoretical framework and the findings of this study will be presented in the chapter four.  However, the research method of the study will be explained first, in the next chapter, chapter three.